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Polish contribution to World War IIThe European theatre of World War II opened with the German invasion of Poland on Friday September 1, 1. Soviet invasion of Poland on September 1. The Polish Army was defeated after more than a month of fierce fighting. After Poland had been overrun, a government- in- exile (headquartered in Britain), armed forces, and an intelligence service were established outside of Poland. These organizations contributed to the Allied effort throughout the war. The Polish Army was recreated in the West, as well as in the East (after the German invasion of the Soviet Union).

Poles provided significant contributions to the Allied effort throughout the war, fighting on land, sea and air. Notable was the service of the Polish Air Force, not only in the Allied victory in the Battle of Britain but also the subsequent air war.

Polish ground troops were present in the North Africa Campaign (siege of Tobruk); the Italian campaign (including the capture of the monastery hill at the Battle of Monte Cassino); and in battles following the invasion of France (the battle of the Falaise pocket; an airbornebrigadeparachute drop during Operation Market Garden and one division in the Western Allied invasion of Germany). Polish forces in the east, fighting alongside the Red army and under Soviet command, took part in the Soviet offensives across Belarus and Ukraine into Poland, across the Vistula and towards the Oder and then into Berlin. Some Polish contributions were less visible, most notably the prewar and wartime deciphering of German Enigma machine codes by cryptologists. Marian Rejewski and his colleagues. The Polish intelligence network also proved to be of much value to the Allied intelligence. Unlike in France, the Nazis did not set up a collaborationist government.

Instead Poland was governed directly by a purely German administration known as the Generalgouvernement. This administration was in turn opposed by the Polish Underground State, which not only fielded one of the three largest partisan forces in existence,[b] but was a rare example of an underground government, a phenomenon not witnessed in many other occupied countries. The Polish forces as a whole are considered to have been the 4th largest Allied army in Europe, after the Soviet Union, United States and Britain.[a]Invasion of Poland[edit]The invasion of Poland by the military forces of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union and a small German- allied Slovak contingent marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. In keeping with the terms of the Secret Additional Protocol of the Molotov- Ribbentrop Pact Germany informed the Soviet Union that its forces were nearing the Soviet interest zone in Poland and so urged the Soviet Union to move into its zone. The Soviets had been taken by surprise by the speed of the German advance as they had expected to have several weeks to prepare for an invasion rather than merely a few days.

They did promise to move as quickly as possible.[1] On September 1. Soviets invaded eastern Poland, forcing the Polish government and military to abandon their plans for a long- term defense in the Romanian bridgehead area. The last remaining Polish Army units capitulated in early October. In accordance with their treaty obligations, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on September 3.

Hitler had gambled, incorrectly, that France and Britain would allow him to annex parts of Poland without military reaction. The campaign began on September 1, 1. Molotov- Ribbentrop Pact containing a secret protocol for the division of Northern and Central Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. It ended on October 6, 1. Germany and the Soviet Union occupying the entirety of Poland.

German and Soviet units went on a military parade in Brest- Litovsk followed by the joint victory parade in the streets of Lwow. Further cooperation between German and Soviets took the form of an exchange of Polish prisoners of war. Following order by Lavrentiy Beria given to the NKVD on October 3, 1. Polish prisoners detained in Soviet camps were traded against 4. POWs released by the Germans.[2]German losses included approximately 1. The Polish casualties were around 6. Though the German attack was successful, losses were greater than expected.

It has been estimated that, during the September campaign in Poland, the Wehrmacht needed to use more than twice the ammunition they used in France the following spring.[citation needed]Aid to the Jews[edit]There was a substantial group of Poles who risked their lives during the German occupation to save Jews. Nazi- occupied Poland was the only territory where the Germans decreed that any kind of help for Jews was punishable by death for the helper and his entire family. Even though, Poland was unique among the German- occupied countries to establish the only organization in Nazi- occupied Europe, which specifically aided the Jewish people.

Known as the Żegota (Polish: "Council for Aid to Jews") the organization provided shelter, food, medicine, money and false documents for Jews across the country who could pass as ethnic Poles and Catholics. Most of Żegota's funds came directly from the Polish government, then in exile. Individual Poles, both clerical[3] and secular, also offered various forms of aid to the Jewish people. For example, the children's section of Żegota led by Irena Sendler saved 2,5. Jewish children with cooperation of Polish families and the Warsaw orphanage of the Sisters of the Family of Mary, Roman Catholic convents such as the Little Sister Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary Conceived Immaculate.[4]Most Jews who survived the German occupation of Poland were saved by Poles unconnected with Żegota.

Estimates of Jewish survivors in Poland range from 4. Scholars estimate that it took the work of ten Poles to save the life of one Jew.[5] Of the individuals awarded medals of Righteous among the Nations (given by the State of Israel to non- Jews who saved Jews from extermination during the Holocaust) those who were Polish citizens number the greatest.[6] There are 6,3.

Polish men and women recognized as "Righteous" to this day, amounting to over 2. Polish resistance[edit]The main resistance force in German- occupied Poland was the Armia Krajowa ("Home Army"; abbreviated "AK"), which numbered some 4. Throughout most of the war, AK was one of the three largest resistance movements in the war.[b] The AK coordinated its operations with the exiled Polish Government in London and its activity concentrated on sabotage, diversion and intelligence gathering.[1. Its combat activity was low until 1.

Nazi war machine started to crumble in the wake of the successes of the Red Army in the Eastern Front. Then the AK started a nationwide uprising (Operation Tempest) against Nazi forces.[1. Before that, AK units carried out thousands of raids, intelligence operations, bombed hundreds of railway shipments, participated in many clashes and battles with the German police and Wehrmacht units and conducted tens of thousands of acts of sabotage against German industry[1. The AK also conducted "punitive" operations to assassinate Gestapo officials responsible for Nazi terror. Following the 1. 94. German attack on the USSR, the AK assisted the Soviet Union's war effort by sabotaging the German advance into Soviet territory and provided intelligence on the deployment and movement of German forces[1.

After 1. 94. 3, its direct combat activity increased sharply. German losses to the Polish partisans averaged 8. In addition to the Home Army, there was an underground ultra- nationalist[9] resistance force called Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (NSZ or "National Armed Forces"), with a fiercely anti- communist stance. It participated in fighting German units, winning many skirmishes.

From 1. 94. 3 onwards, some units took part in battling the Gwardia Ludowa, a communist resistance movement.

Fourier Analysis reveals six natural cycles driving temperatures, no man- made effect: predicts cooling « Jo. Nova. Thermometer circa 1. UPDATED: Post note below, with a couple of extra caveats…Lüdecke, Hempelmann, and Weiss found that the temperature variation can be explained with six superimposed natural cycles. With only six cycles they can closely recreate the 2. European thermometer record. There is little “non- cyclical” signal left, suggesting that CO2 might have a minor or insignificant effect. Smallville Season 1 Episode 2 English Subtitles here. The three German scientists used Fourier analysis to pick out the dominant cycles of one of the longest temperature records we have.

The Central European temperature is an average of records from Prague, Vienna, Hohenpeissenberg, Kremsmünster, Paris, and Munich. The dominant cycle appears to be about 2. There is also a cycle of about 6.

Atlantic/Pacific decadal oscillations. Data is of course, always the biggest problem. If we had 1. 0,0. Instead, we have short records, and Lüdecke et al, make the most of what we have. The European records are only 2. Spannagel Cave stalagmites proxy, where the dominant cycle of roughly 2.

To show that the results apply to other parts of the world, they look at the German Alfred Wegener Institut (AWI), Antarctica series. Ominously, the temperatures of the dominant cycle (in Europe at least) peaked circa 2. Wait and see…Fourier analysis can’t tell us what causes the cycles, but it can tell us the likely frequency, amplitude and phase of those cycles* (see the post note). If these are accurate, it can be used to rule out significant effects from man- made forces and ultimately to predict what will happen next.– Jo. Image: Celcius thermometer made by Pierre Casati, Lyon circa 1. Source Historical Climatology—————————————————————Periodic climate oscillations. Horst- Joachim Lüdecke, EIKE, Jena, Germany.

Alexander Hempelmann, Hamburg Observatory, Hamburg, Germany. Carl Otto Weiss, Physikalisch- Technische Bundesanstalt Braunschweig, Germany. In a recent paper [1] we Fourier- analyzed Central- European temperature records dating back to 1. Contrary to expectations the Fourier spectra consist of spectral lines only, indicating that the climate is dominated by periodic processes (Fig. Nonperiodic processes appear absent or at least weak.

In order to test for nonperiodic processes, the 6 strongest Fourier components were used to reconstruct a temperature history. Fig. 1: Left panel: DFT of the average from 6 central European instrumental time series. Right panel: same for an interpolated time series of a stalagmite from the Austrian Alps.

Fig 2: 1. 5 year running average from 6 central European instrumental time series (black). Reconstruction with the 6 strongest Fourier components (red).

Figure 2 shows the reconstruction together with the Central- European temperature record smoothed over 1. The remarkable agreement suggests the absence of any warming due to CO2 (which would be nonperiodic) or other nonperiodic phenomena related to human population growth or industrial activity. For clarity we note that the reconstruction is not to be confused with a parameter fit. All Fourier components are fixed by the Fourier transform in amplitude and phase, so that the reconstruction involves no free (fitted) parameters. However one has to caution for artefacts.

An obvious one is the limited length of the records. The dominant 2. 50 year period peak in the spectrum results from only one period in the data. This is clearly insufficient to prove periodic dynamics.

Therefore, longer temperature records have to be analyzed. Watch Warehouse 13 Season 4 Uk. We chose the temperature history derived from a stalagmite in the Austrian Spannagel cave, which extends back by 2.

The spectrum (Fig. The wavelet analysis (Fig. THE dominant one in the climate history. We ascertained also that a minimum of this 2. European temperature record. Fig 3: Wavelet analysis of the stalagmite time series. Thus the overall temperature development since 1.

This applies in particular to the temperature rise since 1. CO2, but clearly results from the 2. The 2. 50 year cycle was driving the temperature drop from 1. Fig. 4), which in all official statements is tacitly swept under the carpet.

This same general fall and rise shows in the high quality Antarctic ice core record in comparison with the central- european temperature records (Fig. Fig 4: Central European instrumental temperatures averaged the records of Prague, Vienna, Hohenpeissenberg, Kremsmünster, Paris, and Munich (black). Antarctic ice core record (blue). As a note of caution we mention that a small influence of CO2 could have escaped this analysis.

Such small influence could have been incorporated into the 2. Fourier transform, influencing slightly its frequency and phase. However since the period of substantial industrial CO2 emission is the one after 1. European temperature record length and can therefore only weakly influence the parameters of the 2. An interesting feature reveals itself on closer examination of the stalagmite spectrum (Fig. The lines with a frequency ratio of 0. This is precisely the signature spectrum of a period- doubling route to chaos [2].

Indeed, the wavelet diagram (Fig. AD. The conclusion is that the climate, presently dominated by the 2. We have in the meantime more clearly ascertained the period- doubling and in more detail. In summary, we trace back the temperature history of the last centuries to periodic (and thus “natural”) processes. This applies in particular to the temperature rise since 1. The dominant period of 2. Atlantic/Pacific decadal oscillations).

Cooling as indicated in Fig. The future temperatures can be predicted to continue to decrease, based on the Fourier components. Finally we note that our analysis is compatible with the analysis of Harde who reports a CO2 climate sensitivity of 0. K per CO2 doubling by model calculations [3]. Finally we note that our analysis is seamlessly compatible with the analysis of P. Frank in which the Atlantic/Pacific decadal oscillations are eliminated from the world temperature and the increase of the remaining slope after 1. CO2 doubling. The slope increase after 1.

A comparable small climate sensitivity is also found by the model calculations [3] . POST NOTE: April 3, 2. Don’t read too much into the cycle lengths or the predictions. Thanks to Filius for reminding me to look at the use of the DFT here. I found out a couple of months after posting this that the DFT assumes all the cycles fit perfectly into the chosen end points (a gobsmacking assumption really), so readers should be aware that the cycle lengths are entirely speculative.

If we used different end points, the six cycles would still be there, but they’d be different lengths. There are good reasons I have not cited this paper as demonstrating anything in particular, except that natural cycles could possibly explain the current patterns. I still think it is a paper worth discussing. I was not aware of the depth of the European historical data. I do believe we’ll find some natural cycles that are meaningful that we are currently unaware of. The search needs to start somewhere.*Theoretically true for a proper fourier analysis, not for DFT. Also with the caveat that even the proper fourier analysis will find the cycles that best fit the data but that does not guarantee they are the causal cycles.——————REFERENCES[1] H.- J.

Lüdecke, A. Hempelmann, and C. O. Weiss. (2. 01. Multi- periodic climate dynamics: spectral analysis of long- term instrumental and proxy temperature records, Clim.

Past, 9, p 4. 47- 4. PDF]  doi: 1. 0. 5. M. J. Feigenbaum (1. Universal behavior in nonlinear systems, Physica D, 7, p 1. H. Harde (2. 01. 1) How much CO2 really contributes to global warming? Spectroscopic studies and modelling of the influence of H2. O, CO2 and CH4 on our climate, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol.

EGU2. 01. 1- 4. 50. PDF]Correction: I had written “Vostok” in the introduction. That was wrong, it’s German Alfred Wegener Institut (AWI).

VN: F [1. 9. 2. 2_1. Rating: 9. 0/1. 0 (1.